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  What it is: Dominant in 19th-century India. Two meanings: History of colonial countries. History influenced by colonial ideology (domination). This is the main focus today. Written by colonial officials to justify and maintain colonial rule. Criticized Indian society and culture while praising Western culture and glorifying colonial figures. Key Figures: James Mill, Mountstuart Elphinstone, Vincent Smith. Common Characteristics: Orientalist Representation: Portraying India as exotic, backward, and in need of Western intervention. This often involved stereotyping and misrepresenting Indian culture. British Brought Unity: The idea that India was a collection of disparate kingdoms and the British unified it. This ignores existing cultural and historical connections. Social Darwinism: Belief in the superiority of the British race and their "right" to rule "inferior" races. They saw themselves as the "fittest" to govern. Stagnant Society: Viewing India...

Introduction: v Key Idea : Understanding how history is written (historiography) is crucial for understanding the history itself. It reveals the intellectual context of the time. v Historiography : The study of how history is interpreted and written. It's not just about the events, but also the perspective of the historian.     v Main Approaches to Modern Indian History: o    Colonial (or Imperialist): This perspective emphasizes the positive impacts of British rule in India, often justifying colonialism. o    Nationalist : This view focuses on Indian nationalism and the struggle for independence, highlighting the negative aspects of colonial rule and celebrating Indian achievements.   o    Marxist : This approach analyzes history through the lens of class struggle and economic factors, focusing on the impact of colonialism on different social classes in India.   o    Subaltern : This perspective centers on ...

 Let me break these diagrams into simple explanations for you. Diagram (a): Revolution of the Earth and Effects on Seasons This image shows how Earth's revolution around the Sun creates seasons and affects the length of day and night . Earth’s Tilt : Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5°. This tilt, combined with Earth's revolution around the Sun, causes different parts of Earth to receive varying amounts of sunlight throughout the year. Important Positions in Earth’s Orbit : March 21st (Spring Equinox) : Sunlight falls directly on the Equator. Day and night are of equal length (12 hours each). Marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere. June 21st (Summer Solstice) : Sunlight falls directly on the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N). Northern Hemisphere has the longest day and shortest night (summer). Southern Hemisphere experiences winter with shorter days. September 23rd (Autumn Equinox) : Sunlight again falls directly on the Equator. Day and ...

Day and Night Earth's Rotation : The Earth rotates on its axis, causing only one part of its surface to face the sun at a time, experiencing daylight. The other part, away from the sun's rays, remains in darkness. Cycle of Day and Night : As the Earth rotates from west to east, every region comes into sunlight at some point (sunrise) and later moves into darkness (sunset). Sun's Role : The sun remains stationary; the apparent movement of the sun is due to Earth's rotation. Illusion Explained : Similar to being in a moving train where stationary trees and houses appear to move, Earth's rotation creates the illusion of the sun "moving" across the sky. Fig: (a) Kuala Lumpur emerges from darkness into daylight at sun rise when the earth rotates into the sun's rays (b) The sun is directly overhead at Kuala Lumpur or midday (c) Kuala Lumpur passes from daylight into darkness at sunset when the earth rotates away from the sun (d) Kuala Lumpur is directly away...

The Earth's Movement Apparent Movement of the Sun : People observe the "rising" and "setting" of the sun, but these are illusions. It is the Earth's movement that causes this appearance; the sun itself does not rise or set. Types of Earth's Motion : Rotation : The Earth rotates on its axis from west to east. This rotation takes 24 hours, resulting in day and night. Revolution : The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. This revolution takes 365 days, leading to the change in seasons and the completion of a year.

The Earth and the Universe Exploring the Universe,  The Solar System,  The shape of the Earth.  Evidence of the Earth's Sphericity.  The Earth's Movements,   Day and Night.  The Earth's Revolution,  Dawn and Twilight,  Mathematical Location of Places on the Globe.  Latitude ,  Longitude ,  Longitude and Time.  Standard Time and Time Zones ,  The International Date Line.  Questions and Exercises,  Selected Cambridge Questions   The Earth's Crust The Structure of Earth ( Revision ) The Classification Of Rocks Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks The Influence of Rock Types on Landscape Earth Movements and Major Landforms Types of Mountains Fold Mountain Block Mountain Volcanic mountains Residual Mountains Types Of Plateu

A Working Definition There are two definitions related to Economics That should be prioritised first, before going to give any definitions: Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities and distribute them among different people.   Explanation : Think of economics as managing a limited amount of money to buy things you need and want. For example, imagine you have $20 to spend at the grocery store. You need to decide what to buy: apples, oranges, or bananas. Each fruit costs $2. You can't buy all three because you don't have enough money. So, you have to make choices based on what you value most. This is like how societies manage their resources (like money, labour, and materials) to produce things people want (like food, clothes, and gadgets). Economics helps us understand how these decisions are made and how resources are distributed among different people in society. Economics studies how individuals, firms, governments and oth...

ECONOMICS: Introduction Economics - The Discipline Organizing An Economy Introduction Capitalistic Economy  State Economy: A Centrally Planned System Mixed Economy: A Balance Between Market and State The Role of the State in the Economy Washington Consensus Sectors of an Economy Types Of Economies ( Revision ) Understanding National Income ( Revision ) Cost And Price Of National Income Taxes and National Income Subsidies and National Income

Staining Methods for Assessing Protoplast Viability Staining methods are essential for determining the viability and functional status of protoplasts. The most commonly used methods include: 1. Fluorescein Diacetate (FDA) Staining Method Principle: FDA is a dye that passes through the plasma membrane of viable cells and accumulates inside. Once inside, it is hydrolyzed by cellular esterases, producing a fluorescent product. Procedure: Dissolve FDA in acetone to make a 0.01% solution. Add FDA to the protoplast suspension. Observe under a fluorescence microscope within 5–15 minutes. Result: Viable Protoplasts: Fluoresce yellow-green. Non-Viable Protoplasts: Do not fluoresce. Limitation: Fluorescence diminishes after 15 minutes due to dissociation from membranes.   2. Phenosafranine Staining Principle: Phenosafranine selectively stains dead protoplasts by penetrating ...