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  Prokaryotic Cell A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes include two main groups: Bacteria and Archaea . Here’s an in-depth explanation of the structure and characteristics of a prokaryotic cell: 1. Cell Structure Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler compared to eukaryotic cells. Here's an overview of their key components: a. Cell Wall ·         Function: Provides shape and protection to the cell. ·         Composition: Made up of peptidoglycan (in bacteria), which is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids. In Archaea , the cell wall lacks peptidoglycan and may be composed of different substances like pseudopeptidoglycan. ·         Types of Bacterial Cell Walls: o    Gram-positive: Thick peptidoglycan layer. o    Gram-negative:...

The history and development of cell theory is a fascinating journey that spans several centuries. It involves the contributions of multiple scientists who made significant discoveries about the structure and function of cells, eventually leading to the understanding that cells are the fundamental units of life. Early Observations (1600s) Robert Hooke (1665) Hooke was the first person to use the term "cell" . While examining a thin slice of cork under a simple microscope, he observed tiny, hollow compartments that reminded him of the cells (rooms) in a monastery. These were actually the walls of dead plant cells. Although he saw only the cell walls, this observation laid the groundwork for the concept of cells. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1670s) Leeuwenhoek, often called the "father of microbiology," developed more advanced microscopes and was the first to observe living cells . He de...

1. Introduction to Cell Biology 1.1. Fundamentals of Cell Theory History and development of cell theory. Distinguishing characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells . 1.2. Tools and Techniques in Cell Biology Microscopy: Light microscopy, electron microscopy. Staining techniques for visualizing cellular structures. 2. Cell Structure and Function 2.1. Cell Membrane Structure of the lipid bilayer and membrane proteins. Functions of the cell membrane: transport, signaling, and cell adhesion. 2.2. Cell Wall Structure and function in prokaryotes and plants. 2.3. Cellular Organelles Structure and function of major organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. 3. Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement 3.1. Cytoskeleton Components Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. 3.2. Motor Proteins and Cellular Movement Mechanisms of action: myosin, kinesin, and dynein. 3.3. Cell Motility and the Extracellular Matri...

In plant tissue culture, media preparation is a crucial step because the medium provides the nutrients and hormones necessary for the growth and development of plant tissues (explants). The media composition needs to be carefully designed depending on the plant species, tissue type, and the specific stage of tissue growth (e.g., callus formation, shoot or root development). Here’s a breakdown of the components of tissue culture media and how they are prepared. 1. Components of Tissue Culture Media Most plant tissue culture media are based on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium , which is widely used, but other media like B5, Gamborg’s, or White’s medium may be used depending on the plant species. The general components of culture media include: a. Macronutrients Macronutrients are essential nutrients required in large quantities for plant growth. They provide the basic elements that plants need for their metabolism. Nitrogen (N) : Typically supplied as ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) or potassi...