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Exhaustive events: The total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment is known as exhaustive events or cases. Example ,  In tossing of a coin there are two exhaustive cases viz, head and tail.  In tossing a die, there are 6 exhaustive cases since any one of the six faces  1,2,3,......,6 may come uppermost. Mutually Exhaustive Events: Mutually Exclusive Events: Events that cannot occur at the same time. If one event happens, the other cannot. Example Coin Toss: The events "landing heads" and "landing tails" are mutually exclusive because a coin cannot land both heads and tails at the same time. In both cases, the occurrence of both events is independent of each other. In cases

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling, is a technique used to identify individuals based on their unique DNA patterns. Here’s a simple explanation: Unique DNA Patterns : Every person (except identical twins) has a unique DNA sequence. DNA fingerprinting takes advantage of these unique patterns. Focus on Repetitive DNA : The technique often focuses on regions of DNA that vary greatly among individuals, such as satellite DNA, which includes short tandem repeats (STRs). Process : DNA Isolation : Extract DNA from the sample cells (such as blood, saliva, or hair). DNA Digestion : Use restriction enzymes to cut the DNA at specific sequences, creating fragments of varying lengths. Fragment Separation : Separate the DNA fragments based on size using gel electrophoresis, which involves applying an electric field to move the fragments through a gel matrix. Fragment Transfer : Transfer (blot) the separated DNA fragments from the gel onto a synthetic...

RFLP, or Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, is a technique used in molecular biology to analyze variations in DNA sequences. Here's a detailed overview of what RFLP is and how it works: Definition and Basics RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) : A method that exploits variations in homologous DNA sequences. These variations can be detected by fragmenting the DNA with restriction enzymes and then separating the resulting fragments by gel electrophoresis. Key Components DNA Sample : The genetic material that will be analyzed. Restriction Enzymes : Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences, known as restriction sites. Gel Electrophoresis : A technique to separate DNA fragments based on size. Hybridization : Sometimes, DNA fragments are transferred to a membrane and probed with a labeled DNA sequence to detect specific fragments. Procedure DNA Extraction : Obtain DNA from cel...

  pUC Plasmids: Small and High Copy Number: pUC plasmids are small and can replicate many times in a cell, with a size of 2686 base pairs (bp). Development: These cloning vectors were created by Messing and colleagues at the University of California. "p" stands for plasmid and "UC" stands for the University of California. lacZ and MCS: They include a lacZ gene and a Multiple Cloning Site (MCS) within lacZ, allowing easy insertion of foreign DNA and simple detection of successful cloning. pUC18 and pUC19: These two vectors are the same except for the direction of the MCS. Key Elements of pUC Vectors: pMB1 "rep": This is a replication origin derived from plasmid pBR322, altered by a single mutation to increase the number of copies. "bla" gene: This gene provides resistance to ampicillin (an antibiotic) and is also derived from pBR322 but modified by two mutations. E. coli lac operon: Contains parts of the lac operon system from E. coli bacte...

  Here's a simple table outlining the differences between a Database Management System (DBMS) and a File Processing System (FPS): Feature Database Management System (DBMS) File Processing System (FPS) Data Redundancy Minimizes redundancy through normalization High redundancy due to isolated data files Data Consistency Ensures data consistency through integrity constraints Difficult to maintain consistency Data Access Provides multiple views and flexible querying Limited and rigid access methods Data Security Strong security features and access control Limited security, often managed by the OS Data Integrity Enforces integrity constraints automatically Requires manual enforcement Concurrent Access Supports concurrent access and transactions Limited support for concurrent access Backup and Recovery Automated backup and recovery features Manual and often complex backup and recovery Data Independence Logical and physical data independence No data independence; changes affect applicatio...

  Preparation   Ensure the structural data (coordinates, experimental data, etc.) is complete and validated. Prepare metadata such as authors, sample information, experimental conditions and methods.  Registration   Create an account on the PDB website.  Data Submission  Use the PDB deposition system (OneDep) to upload the structural data files (PDB/mmCIF format). Submit associated experimental data (NMR, X-Ray diffraction, etc) Annotations   Provide detailed information about the structure, including biological function, related literature and any other relevant details.  Validation   The PDB system runs validation checks on the submitted data. Review and address any validation issue reported by the system.  Review and Approval  Receive a unique PDB ID code for the submitted structure. The data becomes publicly available after the chosen release conditions are met.

Here are brief explanations for SCOP, MMDB, and NDB: SCOP (Structural Classification of Proteins): SCOP is a database that classifies protein structures based on their evolutionary and structural relationships. It organizes proteins into a hierarchy of classes, folds, superfamilies, and families. MMDB (Molecular Modeling Database): MMDB is a database managed by NCBI that contains 3D macromolecular structures, including proteins and nucleic acids. It integrates structural data with functional information and provides tools for visualization and analysis. NDB (Nucleic Acid Database): NDB is a database that specializes in the 3D structures of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. It stores information on their conformations and interactions, supporting research in structural biology and bioinformatics.