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  Embryogenesis: Definition: Embryogenesis is the process by which a single-celled zygote develops into a multicellular embryo . It involves a series of cell divisions , differentiation , and pattern formation . Stages: Zygote Formation: The initial cell formed after fertilization. Cleavage: Series of mitotic divisions producing a cluster of cells. Differentiation: Cells specialize to form various tissues and organs. Maturation: Development of the embryo into a fully formed organism. Organogenesis: Definition: Organogenesis is the formation and development of organs from the three germ layers formed during embryogenesis. These germ layers are: Ectoderm: Forms the skin , nervous system , and sensory organs . Mesoderm: Forms the muscles , circulatory system , and bones . Endoderm: Forms the digestive tract , lungs , and internal organs . Practical Applications of Embryogenesis and Organogenesis: Plant Tissue Culture: Somatic Embryogenesis: Development of an embryo from s...

  Introduction: Virulence (Vir) genes are located on the Ti (Tumor-inducing) plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the Ri (Root-inducing) plasmid of Agrobacterium rhizogenes . These genes play a crucial role in transferring T-DNA (Transfer DNA) from the bacterium into the plant genome, which is the basis for creating transgenic plants . Location and Types of Virulence Genes: Found outside the T-DNA region on the plasmid. There are several vir gene clusters (VirA, VirB, VirC, VirD, VirE, VirG, etc.), each encoding proteins with specific functions. Key Functions of Virulence Genes: VirA and VirG: Activation of the Vir Genes VirA : A sensor protein that detects plant signals (like phenolic compounds) released from wounded plants. VirG : Acts as a regulatory protein , activating other vir genes in response to VirA signals. Together, they start the vir gene cascade , initiating the transfer process. VirB: Formation of the T-DNA Transfer Channel Encodes proteins that form a ty...